D236 Test Bank: Key Questions & Answers Guide

D236 Test Bank: Key Questions & Answers Guide

Student Name

Western Governors University

D236 Pathophysiology

Prof. Name:

Date

Study Guide Questions/Answers

1. Describe how your body responds to an infection
   When an infection occurs, T-cells release cytokines that activate B-cells. These B-cells then generate antibodies specifically designed to target and neutralize the invading pathogens.

2. Identify role of DNA changes in congenital abnormalities
   Congenital abnormalities arise from genetic mutations or chromosomal irregularities that interfere with normal fetal development.

3. How does development disrupt congenital abnormalities?
   Abnormal DNA alterations during early development can interfere with normal organ and tissue formation, leading to congenital defects.

4. Describe factors that disrupt homeostasis and how disruptions affect wellbeing
   Imbalances in fluids or electrolytes can disrupt homeostasis, often resulting in nausea, vomiting, or heart rhythm irregularities.

5. Explain RAAS (Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone-System)
   When blood flow to the kidneys drops, renin is released. This triggers the formation of angiotensin I, which converts to angiotensin II, causing blood vessel constriction and stimulating aldosterone secretion. Aldosterone helps the kidneys retain sodium and water, maintaining blood pressure and fluid balance.

6. DKA
   Diabetic ketoacidosis presents with an increased anion gap and decreased bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) levels.

7. How do kidneys compensate for alkalosis?
   In alkalosis, the kidneys retain hydrogen ions (H⁺) and excrete bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) to restore acid–base balance.

8. Untreated acidosis leads to an increase in which electrolyte?
   Potassium levels rise due to hydrogen–potassium ion exchange within cells.

9. West Nile Virus
   Spread through bites from infected mosquitoes, it can cause high fever, headache, and neck stiffness in severe cases.

10. Lyme Disease
    A tick-borne illness caused by Borrelia burgdorferi, resulting in fever, fatigue, and a characteristic bull’s-eye rash.

11. Erythema infectiosum
    Also called “fifth disease,” this viral infection starts with fever and respiratory symptoms, followed by bright red cheeks in children.

12. Obesity and Diabetes are risk factors for having a child with Spina Bifida.
    Maternal obesity and diabetes increase the likelihood of neural tube defects such as spina bifida.

13. Trousseau’s sign
    A carpal spasm of the arm that occurs with hypocalcemia.

14. Cause and sign of Spina Bifida
    Caused by failure of the neural tube to close properly during development; a visible fluid-filled sac may appear on the lower back.

15. Hemophilia is more common in Males.
    Because the condition is X-linked recessive, males are more frequently affected.

16. Prenatal exposure to alcohol includes ND-PAE, decreased brain function, FAS
    Alcohol use during pregnancy may cause neurodevelopmental disorder (ND-PAE), fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), and impaired brain function.

17. Connective vs muscle tissue disorders

18. Describe Lupus
    An autoimmune inflammatory disease that commonly causes joint pain, fatigue, and a characteristic butterfly-shaped facial rash.

19. Describe Myasthenia Gravis
    An autoimmune disorder in which antibodies attack acetylcholine receptors, leading to muscle weakness that worsens throughout the day, along with drooping eyelids, double vision, and swallowing difficulties.

20. Dermatitis
    Inflammation of the skin resulting from irritants or allergic reactions.

21. Eczema
    A chronic, noninfectious inflammatory skin condition marked by redness, itching, and blistering or crusting lesions.

22. Decubitus ulcer
    Also known as a pressure sore, this lesion develops from prolonged pressure on the skin due to immobility.

23. Fungal infections
    Caused by fungal spores, these infections may affect the skin’s surface or deeper tissues and are sometimes transmissible.

24. Benign neoplasm
    A noncancerous, localized growth with smooth, well-defined borders that does not spread to other tissues.

25. Malignant neoplasm
    A cancerous growth that exhibits uncontrolled cell division, irregular borders, and the ability to invade surrounding tissues.

26. Osteoporosis
    A condition characterized by decreased bone density and mass, leading to fragile, porous bones that fracture easily, often associated with aging and hormonal changes.

27. Osteomalacia
    A disorder caused by a deficiency in calcium or vitamin D, resulting in the softening and weakening of bones.

28. Myoglobin
    An oxygen-binding red pigment found in muscle cells that stores and releases oxygen during muscle activity.

29. Bursa
    A small, fluid-filled sac that reduces friction and allows smooth movement between tendons, muscles, and bones near joints.

30. Rickets
    A pediatric bone disorder caused by vitamin D deficiency, leading to soft, deformed bones.

31. Degenerative Disk Disease
    A spinal condition where intervertebral discs deteriorate due to aging, repetitive stress, or injury, causing pain and reduced mobility.

32. Paget’s Disease
    A chronic bone disorder marked by abnormal bone remodeling, leading to thickened but weak bones, often affecting the pelvis, spine, and skull.

33. Comminuted fracture
    A bone fracture in which the bone is shattered into multiple fragments.

34. Three types of skin cancer
    Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma.

35. Basal Cell Carcinoma
    The most common yet least dangerous skin cancer; presents as pearly nodules, typically on sun-exposed facial skin, and rarely spreads.

36. Squamous Cell Carcinoma
    A more aggressive form of skin cancer appearing as scaly, red, crusted, or firm nodules; can metastasize if untreated.

37. Melanoma
    The most dangerous type of skin cancer, often presenting as dark, irregularly shaped lesions; Caucasian males are at highest risk.

38. Consequences when integumentary system is disrupted
    Damage to the skin barrier impairs immune protection and increases infection risk.

39. Types of burns

40. Vitiligo
    A disorder causing loss of skin pigmentation, resulting in white patches due to destruction of melanocytes.

41. Ischemic CVA vs. Hemorrhagic CVA

42. Subdural hematoma
    An accumulation of blood beneath the dura mater, often due to head injury.

43. Alzheimer’s Disease vs. Parkinson’s Disease

44. Huntington’s Disease
    A hereditary neurodegenerative disorder caused by a dominant gene mutation, resulting in involuntary movements and cognitive decline, typically emerging in mid-adulthood.

45. Sclerosis
    A pathological hardening or thickening of tissues.

46. Disorders that cause vision loss

47. Kyphosis
    An exaggerated outward curvature of the thoracic spine causing a hunched back.

48. Disorders that cause hearing loss
    Meniere’s disease involves fluid imbalance in the inner ear leading to vertigo, while otitis media is an infection of the middle ear that impairs hearing.

49. Predisposing factors of ischemic stroke
    Atrial fibrillation, carotid artery stenosis, and cerebral arteriosclerosis increase the risk of ischemic stroke.

50. Rheumatoid Arthritis
    A chronic autoimmune disorder that causes joint inflammation, pain, swelling, and deformity, often accompanied by elevated white blood cell count.

51. Cerebral contusion
    A brain bruise from head trauma that may cause headache, nausea, vomiting, or ringing in the ears.

52. TIA vs. CVA
    A transient ischemic attack (TIA) occurs when cerebral blood flow is briefly blocked, causing temporary symptoms, unlike a cerebrovascular accident (CVA), which results in permanent brain damage.

53. Stroke
    Complete blockage of a cerebral artery leading to brain cell death and lasting neurological deficits.

54. Multiple Sclerosis
    A progressive autoimmune disorder of the central nervous system that damages the myelin sheath, resulting in tremors, weakness, and coordination issues.

55. Aneurysm
    A bulging or ballooning of a weakened section of an arterial wall, which may rupture and cause internal bleeding.

56. Thrombus vs. Embolus

57. Atherosclerosis
    Arterial hardening due to cholesterol and plaque buildup, progressing through endothelial injury, foam cell formation, and fatty streak development.

58. Angina Pectoris
    Chest discomfort due to reduced oxygen supply to the heart muscle, often radiating to the arm or jaw and relieved by rest.

59. Myocardial Infarction
    Commonly known as a heart attack, it results from obstruction of coronary arteries by plaque or thrombus, causing cardiac tissue death.

60. Endocarditis
    Inflammation of the inner heart lining, typically caused by bacterial infection.

61. Pericarditis
    Inflammation of the pericardial sac surrounding the heart, producing sharp chest pain that worsens with movement or breathing.

62. Benign vs. Malignant Hypertension

63. Communicable disease
    An illness transmitted from one person or species to another through direct or indirect contact.

64. Infectious disease
    A disease caused by pathogenic microorganisms that can spread between individuals.

65. Myocardial infarction causes damage to
    The arteries supplying the brain, retina, heart, and kidneys, potentially impairing their function.

66. What is expected in Right-Sided Heart Failure?
    Jugular vein distention (JVD) due to blood backing up into the systemic circulation.

67. What characterizes hypertensive crisis?
    A dangerously high systolic blood pressure exceeding 180 mmHg, requiring immediate medical attention.

68. Types of anemia

69. Where does cancer originate from in leukemia?
    In the bone marrow, where abnormal white blood cells are produced.

70. CD4 cells
    Helper T-cells that mature in the thymus and activate B-cells to produce immune responses.

71. Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
    A cancer of the lymphatic system identified by the presence of Reed–Sternberg cells.

72. Lymphocytosis
    An elevated lymphocyte count, often asymptomatic but associated with infections or immune disorders.

73. Stable angina
    Predictable chest pain triggered by exertion or stress and relieved by rest or nitroglycerin.

74. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection
    Includes common cold, laryngitis, croup, pharyngitis, rhinitis, sinusitis, and tonsillitis.

75. Lower Respiratory Tract Infection
    Involves pneumonia, bronchitis, and tuberculosis.

76. Conditions that lead to COPD
    Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease may develop from smoking, long-term asthma, chemical exposure, or genetic predisposition.

77. Pneumonia
    Inflammation of lung tissue caused by bacterial, viral, or fungal infection, often producing crackles and rhonchi during auscultation.

78. Asthma
    A chronic airway disorder marked by bronchospasms and inflammation, categorized under COPD when persistent.

79. Pneumothorax
    The presence of air in the pleural space, causing lung collapse, often resulting from trauma or spontaneous rupture.

80. Cor Pulmonale
    Right-sided heart failure secondary to chronic lung disease, leading to systemic venous congestion.

81. Coal Worker’s Pneumoconiosis
    A lung disease caused by long-term inhalation of coal dust, common in miners. Severe exposure leads to widespread lung fibrosis, known as “black lung disease.”

82. Common characteristics of chronic digestive system disorders
    Conditions like Celiac disease, Crohn’s disease, and ulcerative colitis often cause abdominal pain, weight loss, irregular bowel movements, bleeding, diarrhea, and nausea.

83. Common characteristics of acute digestive system disorders
    GERD, IBS, and hiatal hernia typically present with abdominal discomfort, bloating, bleeding, heartburn, and nausea or vomiting.

84. Pyelonephritis
    An infection and inflammation of the kidney and renal pelvis, most commonly caused by E. coli bacteria.

85. Glomerulonephritis
    Inflammation of the glomeruli within the kidneys, usually resulting from immune injury or systemic illness.

86. Renal calculi
    Also known as kidney stones; formed when minerals crystallize in the urine. Small stones may pass naturally, while larger ones can block the ureter.

87. Renal cell carcinoma
    A malignant tumor originating from kidney tubule cells, presenting with flank pain, hematuria, or an abdominal mass.

88. End-Stage Renal Disease (ESRD)
    Advanced kidney failure with minimal renal function, requiring dialysis or transplant. Symptoms include fatigue, nausea, hypertension, altered urination, and mental confusion.

89. Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy (CRRT)
    A slow, continuous form of dialysis that filters blood 24 hours a day, maintaining stable electrolytes and fluid balance.

90. Ulcerative Colitis
    An autoimmune inflammatory bowel disease causing chronic inflammation and ulcer formation in the colon.

91. Diverticulitis
    Inflammation of diverticula in the colon, leading to pain and bowel disturbances. Symptoms often improve after bowel movement; enemas and colonoscopy are contraindicated.

92. Organ targeted by virus that causes Hepatitis C
    The liver is primarily affected, leading to chronic inflammation and potential cirrhosis.

93. Hepatitis A, B, C, D, E spreads

94. Cholecystitis
    Inflammation of the gallbladder, often linked to gallstones, causing right upper quadrant pain radiating to the back.

95. GERD cause
    Gastroesophageal reflux disease results from the lower esophageal sphincter failing to close properly, allowing acid to backflow.

96. Pancreatitis
    Inflammation of the pancreas, often triggered by gallstones or alcohol use, leading to abdominal pain and elevated enzymes.

97. Crohn’s Disease
    A chronic inflammatory bowel disease affecting any part of the GI tract, characterized by diarrhea, weight loss, ulcers, and fistula formation.

98. Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)
    A sudden decline in renal function due to injury or reduced blood flow; previously referred to as acute renal failure.

99. Colon cancer signs/symptoms

• Right-sided: Iron deficiency anemia

• Left-sided: Obstruction and “apple-core” lesion on barium enema

• Other signs: Pencil-thin stools, bright red bleeding, and colicky pain

100. Risk factors for renal cancer
     Smoking, obesity, and chronic hypertension significantly increase the risk.

101. Risk factors for bladder cancer
     Tobacco use, exposure to industrial dyes and chemicals, urinary infections, prior pelvic radiation, and age over 40 years.

102. GFR (Glomerular Filtration Rate)
     A measurement used to determine the stage of chronic kidney disease and overall renal function.

103. Common characteristics of endocrine system disorders
     Dark skin patches, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and low blood pressure are frequent manifestations.

104. Common treatments for prostate and testicular cancers
     Treatment may involve surgical removal (orchiectomy) or targeted radiation therapy.

105. Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)
     A bacterial infection of female reproductive organs causing pelvic or abdominal pain, vaginal discharge, dysuria, and fever.

106. Thyroid cancer
     Most commonly papillary carcinoma; symptoms include a neck lump, difficulty swallowing, and voice changes.

107. Graves’ Disease (Hyperthyroidism)
     An autoimmune disorder causing excessive thyroid activity, goiter, exophthalmos, tachycardia, weight loss, and insomnia.

108. Hypothyroidism
     A disorder where thyroid hormone production is reduced (low T3 and T4, high TSH), leading to fatigue, constipation, and brittle nails.

109. Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)
     A serious diabetic complication due to insufficient insulin, leading to hyperglycemia and ketone buildup, which can cause cerebral edema.

110. Causes of Diabetes

111. Autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells (Type 1).

112. Insulin resistance due to obesity (Type 2).

113. Hormonal changes during pregnancy (Gestational diabetes).

114. Diabetes Insipidus (DI)
     A condition where the body fails to produce or respond to antidiuretic hormone (ADH), causing excessive urination and dehydration.

115. Acromegaly
     Excess growth hormone secretion from the pituitary gland leading to enlarged extremities and facial features.

116. Cushing’s Disease
     Characterized by elevated sodium, blood pressure, blood volume, and glucose, with decreased potassium—caused by excess cortisol.

117. Gonorrhea
     A bacterial sexually transmitted infection caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, leading to painful urination, discharge, and possible pelvic inflammation.

118. Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS)
     A hormonal disorder marked by enlarged ovaries with multiple cysts, high androgen levels, irregular menstruation, infertility, and insulin resistance.

119. Which STIs can be passed via birth canal
     Gonorrhea and Chlamydia can be transmitted to newborns during childbirth.

120. Endometriosis
     A condition where endometrial tissue grows outside the uterus, causing pain, menstrual irregularities, and infertility.

121. Triple Negative Breast Cancer
     A type of breast cancer lacking estrogen and progesterone receptors; unresponsive to hormone therapy and treated mainly with chemotherapy.

122. Anti-androgen therapy (Spironolactone or Flutamide)
     These medications block testosterone effects, potentially leading to erectile dysfunction, hot flashes, or decreased bone density.

123. Cullen’s Sign
     Bruising around the umbilical region, often indicative of acute pancreatitis or internal bleeding.

D236 Test Bank: Key Questions & Answers Guide