C273 Foundations & Major Theories

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Western Governors University

C273 Introduction to Sociology

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Unit 1: Foundations of Sociology

Module 1: The Field of Sociology

Development of the Field of Sociology

The discipline of sociology emerged from a growing recognition that human behavior is not solely the result of individual choices but is also shaped by underlying social structures and collective patterns. Early thinkers began to explore how institutions such as government, religion, and the economy influence people’s everyday actions and attitudes. Sociology, therefore, evolved as a systematic effort to understand the interconnections between individual experiences and broader societal forces.

Lesson 1: Sociology

Sociology can be defined as the systematic study of social life, human behavior, and society. It investigates how individuals interact within groups, institutions, and cultural systems. By examining social patterns, sociologists seek to uncover general principles that govern social life.

Social facts refer to the aspects of culture—such as laws, norms, religion, and economic structures—that influence and constrain individual behavior. These facts exist independently of individuals yet exert powerful control over their actions.

The sociological imagination represents the capacity to perceive the connection between personal experiences and the larger social world. It allows individuals to understand their circumstances not merely as personal troubles but as public issues influenced by historical and structural contexts. Developing this perspective enables people to interpret their lives through multiple lenses and recognize the broader patterns shaping society.

Lesson 2: The Development of Sociology

The emergence of sociology as a discipline was influenced by a number of pioneering scholars who each contributed distinct ideas to its growth. The table below summarizes some of the foundational figures and their contributions.

Theorist	Period	Key Contributions	Major Concepts/Ideas
Auguste Comte	1798–1857	Known as the founder of sociology and positivism; emphasized the use of scientific methods to study society.	Positivism; scientific approach to understanding social order.
Harriet Martineau	1802–1876	Introduced sociology to England and advanced feminist perspectives; focused on domestic issues and women’s rights.	Women’s rights; social reform.
Karl Marx	1818–1883	Developed the conflict theory, emphasizing class struggle between the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers).	Class conflict; capitalism; historical materialism.
Herbert Spencer	1820–1903	Applied Darwinian principles to society, promoting the concept of Social Darwinism.	Survival of the fittest; social evolution.
Émile Durkheim	1858–1917	Emphasized studying social facts scientifically; researched suicide and social solidarity.	Functionalism; mechanical and organic solidarity.
Jane Addams	1860–1935	Advocated for applied sociology and social reform; promoted the concept of “sympathetic knowledge.”	Activism; community engagement.
Max Weber	1864–1920	Examined modernization, rationalization, and the role of religion in capitalism.	Bureaucracy; Protestant ethic; rationalization.
W.E.B. Du Bois	1868–1963	Introduced the concept of “double consciousness” in relation to African American identity.	Racial identity; civil rights; NAACP founder.
Immanuel Wallerstein	1930–2019	Proposed the World Systems Theory explaining global inequality.	Core and periphery nations; global capitalism.
C. Wright Mills	1916–1962	Popularized the sociological imagination concept.	Linking personal troubles with public issues.
Margaret Mead	1901–1978	Demonstrated that gender roles are socially learned rather than biologically fixed.	Cultural anthropology; gender roles.
Charles Horton Cooley	1864–1929	Introduced the concept of the “looking-glass self.”	Symbolic interactionism; self-concept formation.
George Herbert Mead	1863–1931	Explored socialization through role-taking and the concept of the generalized other.	Symbolic interactionism; role-taking.
Georg Simmel	1858–1918	Focused on group dynamics and the effects of increasing group size on social interactions.	Social networks; group dynamics.

Module 2: Major Sociological Perspectives

Lesson 3: Major Sociological Perspectives

Sociological perspectives are frameworks for analyzing social phenomena. They offer distinct approaches to understanding how societies function, change, and maintain stability.

Perspective	Key Idea	Focus Areas
Functionalist Perspective	Society functions as a complex system whose parts work together to maintain stability.	Structure, function, interdependence of institutions.
Conflict Perspective	Society is characterized by inequality and competition for resources and power.	Class, race, gender, power relations.
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective	Society is constructed through everyday social interactions and the exchange of meanings.	Symbols, communication, social meaning.
Feminist Perspective	Examines gender inequalities and advocates for equal treatment of all genders.	Gender roles, patriarchy, social justice.

Within the functionalist view, functions refer to the beneficial consequences of social activities, while dysfunctions are the negative outcomes that disrupt societal equilibrium.

Manifest functions are deliberate and intended outcomes of social processes.
Latent functions are unintended or hidden consequences that may still impact society.

The conflict perspective highlights the constant struggle among groups over scarce resources, suggesting that societal structures benefit the powerful at the expense of others.

In contrast, symbolic interactionism focuses on how individuals create and interpret meaning through symbols such as language, gestures, and shared cultural understandings.

Lesson 4: Uses of Sociology

Sociology is not limited to theoretical analysis; it has practical applications in addressing real-world issues.

Type	Description	Application
Applied Sociology	The practical use of sociological theories and methods to address social issues and implement change.	Community development, social policy, organizational consulting.
Clinical Sociology	The use of sociological insight to promote individual and group well-being, often in health or social care settings.	Health interventions, public health campaigns, counseling.

Applied and clinical sociology bridge academic knowledge with community practice, contributing to improved social conditions and public welfare.

Module 3: Contributions of Theory and Research to Sociological Knowledge

Lesson 5: Theory and Research

Sociological research provides empirical foundations for theoretical understanding. It can be categorized into descriptive and explanatory studies.

Type of Research	Purpose	Example
Descriptive Research	Seeks to describe social phenomena or patterns.	Studying social attitudes toward education.
Explanatory Research	Seeks to explain why social phenomena occur.	Investigating why crime rates differ among communities.

Lesson 6: The Sociological Research Process

Research in sociology follows a systematic process often summarized as A.R.H.C.A.R:

Asking a question
Reviewing background research
Constructing a hypothesis
Collecting data
Analyzing results
Reporting findings

Quantitative research emphasizes measurable data and statistical analysis, whereas qualitative research focuses on exploring meanings, experiences, and social contexts.

A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon, while operational definitions clarify how variables are measured or identified. Researchers must also be cautious of the Hawthorne effect, in which participants alter behavior when they know they are being studied. Findings are considered statistically significant when the observed differences between groups are unlikely due to chance.

Lesson 7: Research Ethics

Sociological research must adhere to ethical standards to ensure the protection of participants and the integrity of findings.

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) monitor research proposals to confirm they meet ethical criteria. Researchers are expected to maintain integrity through accurate reporting, acknowledgment of sources, and conducting studies within their expertise.

Key aspects of ethical research include:

Informed consent: Participants must understand the nature and purpose of the research.
Avoiding exploitation: Researchers should not take advantage of participants’ vulnerabilities.
Confidentiality: Protecting the privacy of participants.

Historical cases such as that of Laud Humphreys demonstrate the importance of ethical conduct in research, particularly regarding informed consent and deception.

Unit 2: Culture and Socialization

Module 4: Culture

Defining Culture and Its Processes

Culture represents the collective knowledge, language, beliefs, norms, customs, and material artifacts that define a group of people and are passed from one generation to the next. It is through culture that individuals learn how to think, behave, and interact within their societies.

Human behavior is not governed solely by biological instincts but by learned cultural patterns. Instincts, drives, and reflexes are innate responses to environmental stimuli, while enculturation refers to the process by which individuals, particularly children, learn their culture through social participation and observation.

The social construction of reality suggests that people define and interpret the world based on collective agreements and shared meanings. In this sense, what is considered “real” is largely shaped by social interactions and cultural expectations.

Lesson 8: Defining Culture

Culture is best understood through a holistic perspective, meaning that each aspect of a culture is interrelated and cannot be fully comprehended in isolation. The idea of a constructed society highlights that societies are created and maintained through ongoing social interactions among individuals and groups.

Different forms of cultural diversity exist within societies:

Subcultures are smaller groups within a larger culture that hold distinct beliefs, norms, or lifestyles that set them apart.
Ethnic groups are communities that share a common heritage, ancestry, language, or national identity.

These variations contribute to the rich mosaic of cultural experiences that shape societies worldwide.

Lesson 9: Culture and Learning

Human behavior is a combination of innate biological drives and socially learned practices. While reflexes and instincts are automatic, drives motivate individuals to fulfill basic needs such as hunger or rest. However, most human behavior is culturally learned, meaning it is shaped by social norms, customs, and values rather than instinctual responses.

Through cultural learning, individuals acquire the tools to interpret social cues, participate in rituals, and adapt to community expectations. This learning ensures the continuity of cultural traditions and reinforces social cohesion.

Module 5: Components of Culture

Lesson 10: The Normative Components of Culture

Cultural systems rely on shared norms, values, and beliefs to create order and predictability. Norms are socially accepted rules that guide behavior, while values represent collective ideas of what is right, desirable, or good.

Type of Norm	Definition	Example	Consequences for Violation
Folkways	Informal, everyday customs that are not strictly enforced.	Table manners, dress codes.	Mild disapproval or social correction.
Mores	Strongly held norms based on moral and ethical values.	Honesty, respect for life.	Severe social or legal sanctions.
Taboos	Norms so powerful that violating them causes disgust or repulsion.	Incest, cannibalism.	Extreme moral condemnation or ostracism.

Sanctions—both positive and negative—serve to reinforce adherence to social norms. Positive sanctions include rewards or praise, while negative sanctions involve punishment or disapproval.

Lesson 11: Language, Symbols, and Gestures

Communication lies at the heart of culture. Humans use symbols, language, and gestures to share meanings and express ideas.

Symbols are objects, actions, or words that represent something beyond their literal meaning.
Language is a structured set of symbols used to convey meaning, allowing complex communication and the transmission of culture.
Gestures are body movements or facial expressions used for non-verbal communication.

Together, these components form the foundation of human interaction and enable the creation of shared cultural realities.

Lesson 12: Cultural Relativism

Ethnocentrism refers to judging another culture using the standards of one’s own, often leading to misunderstandings or prejudice. In contrast, cultural relativism encourages viewing other cultures objectively and understanding practices within their specific social contexts.

Concept	Definition	Impact
Ethnocentrism	Belief in the superiority of one’s own culture.	Promotes division and bias.
Cultural Relativism	Understanding cultural practices without judgment.	Encourages tolerance and global understanding.

Culture changes for several reasons:

Exposure to other cultures through globalization and communication.
Significant events that reshape collective behavior or beliefs.
Efforts by subcultures to challenge dominant values and promote change.

Diffusion describes how cultural ideas spread from one group to another, while modernization refers to a society’s transition toward urbanization, industrialization, and technological advancement.

Module 6: Socialization and the Self

Lesson 13: Agents of Socialization

Socialization is the lifelong process through which individuals internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of their society. Through this process, a person develops a sense of self—their unique identity shaped by social interaction.

Both nature (biological factors) and nurture (environmental influences) contribute to individual development. The primary agents of socialization include:

Agent	Description	Influence
Family	The first and most influential social unit; transmits values, beliefs, and social roles.	Shapes emotional bonds and early behavior.
Peers	Social groups of similar age or interests.	Influence attitudes, identity, and behavior.
Institutions	Structured organizations such as schools, workplaces, or religious bodies.	Teach norms, discipline, and civic responsibility.
Mass Media	Communication outlets reaching large audiences.	Shapes perceptions, values, and cultural norms.

Each agent plays a critical role in forming identity and guiding an individual’s integration into society.

Lesson 14: Socialization and Aging

The life course perspective views development and aging as continuous processes influenced by historical, social, and cultural contexts.

Five principles of life course theory include:

Life-span development: Growth and change occur throughout life.
Agency: Individuals make choices within social constraints.
Time and place: Historical and cultural contexts shape experiences.
Timing: The impact of events depends on when they occur in life.
Linked lives: Individuals are connected through shared relationships and experiences.

Four key life stages are recognized:

Childhood: Period of dependency and learning basic social skills.
Adolescence: Transitional phase marked by identity exploration; includes liminal states (between stages) and rites of passage marking key transitions.
Adulthood: Stage of stability, work, and family life.
Old age: Reflection and role adjustment in response to aging.

Lesson 15: Gender Role Socialization

Gender socialization teaches individuals the behaviors, roles, and expectations society associates with being male or female.

Concept	Definition	Notes
Sex	Biological characteristics distinguishing males and females.	Determined by genetics and anatomy.
Gender	Social and cultural meanings attached to being male or female.	Constructed through interaction.
Gender Roles	Normative expectations for behaviors based on gender.	Learned through family, peers, and media.
Gender Identity	An individual’s internal understanding of their gender.	May or may not align with biological sex.

Gender expression varies across societies. For instance, the Two-Spirit identity recognized among Indigenous peoples represents non-binary gender roles. Other variations include intersex individuals (born with both male and female traits) and gender-variant identities (individuals whose behaviors defy traditional norms).

Gendered marketing reinforces gender stereotypes by targeting products and messages to specific sexes, perpetuating unequal social expectations.

Lesson 16: Identity and Sexual Orientation

Sexual identity refers to how individuals define themselves based on emotional, romantic, and sexual attraction. It forms an integral part of self-concept and interacts with cultural, religious, and social influences. Understanding sexual orientation through a sociological lens emphasizes diversity, acceptance, and the social construction of identity.

Module 7: Stages of Self and Socialization

Lesson 17: Stages of Self

Sociologist George Herbert Mead proposed that the development of self occurs through role-taking—the ability to imagine oneself from another’s perspective. He outlined three stages of self-development:

Stage	Description	Example
Preparatory Stage	Children imitate the behaviors and gestures of others.	A child mimicking a parent’s speech.
Play Stage	Children take on roles of significant others, such as parents or teachers.	Pretend play as a doctor or teacher.
Game Stage	Children learn to consider multiple roles and the rules of organized activities.	Playing team sports or classroom group tasks.

The concept of the generalized other emerges at the game stage, where individuals internalize societal expectations and norms. Self-consciousness develops as people become aware of their unique identity, while the social self reflects how individuals perceive themselves based on social interactions.

Lesson 18: The Looking-Glass Self

Charles Horton Cooley’s concept of the looking-glass self explains how individuals form their self-image through perceived judgments of others. The process includes three stages:

Imagining how one appears to others.
Interpreting others’ judgments.
Developing a self-concept based on those perceptions.

This reflective process shapes self-esteem and influences behavior. The self-image can fluctuate across contexts, while self-concept remains a more consistent understanding of who one is, regardless of external situations.

Unit 3: Social Organization and Deviance

Module 8: Social Structure and Institutions

Lesson 19: Social Structure

Social structure refers to the organized pattern of relationships and institutions that together compose society. It provides a framework within which individuals and groups interact. Social structure shapes behavior, expectations, and opportunities, giving society both stability and predictability.

Key elements of social structure include status, roles, groups, networks, and institutions. These components determine how individuals fit into the larger social system.

Element	Definition	Example
Status	A recognized social position that a person occupies.	Student, parent, or manager.
Ascribed Status	A position assigned at birth or involuntarily later in life.	Race, gender, age.
Achieved Status	A position earned or chosen through individual effort.	College graduate, athlete, or artist.
Master Status	The dominant status that overshadows other aspects of identity.	Celebrity, disability, or occupation.

Every status carries roles—expected behaviors and responsibilities associated with that position. When these roles conflict (e.g., balancing work and family obligations), individuals experience role strain or role conflict.

Social structure also includes social institutions such as family, education, religion, economy, and government, which collectively sustain social order and meet essential societal needs.

Lesson 20: Social Institutions

Social institutions are stable systems of beliefs and behaviors that organize major areas of social life. Each institution fulfills specific functions necessary for societal survival.

Institution	Function	Examples of Activities
Family	Regulates reproduction, socialization, and emotional support.	Parenting, marriage, kinship.
Education	Transmits knowledge, values, and skills to new generations.	Schooling, credentialing, literacy.
Economy	Manages production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.	Labor markets, trade, finance.
Government	Maintains order, enforces laws, and allocates power.	Legislation, policing, taxation.
Religion	Provides moral guidance, meaning, and community cohesion.	Worship, rituals, belief systems.
Health Care	Promotes physical and mental well-being.	Medicine, hospitals, health policy.

These institutions are interconnected—changes in one often produce ripple effects in others. For instance, economic recession may alter family structures, employment rates, and even educational opportunities.

Module 9: Groups and Organizations

Lesson 21: Groups

A group consists of two or more people who interact regularly and share a sense of identity. Groups provide belonging, support, and a context for learning social norms.

Type of Group	Definition	Example
Primary Group	Small, close-knit groups with emotional intimacy.	Family, close friends.
Secondary Group	Larger, impersonal groups organized around specific goals.	Coworkers, classmates.
In-Group	A group to which an individual feels loyalty or belonging.	Sports team, fraternity.
Out-Group	A group perceived as different or opposed.	Rival school, competing company.
Reference Group	A group used as a standard for self-evaluation.	Professional role models.

Groupthink occurs when members conform to a consensus without critically evaluating alternatives, often leading to poor decisions. Sociologists also distinguish between dyads (two-person groups) and triads (three-person groups), noting that group stability increases with size, though intimacy often decreases.

Lesson 22: Formal Organizations

Formal organizations are highly structured groups created to achieve specific objectives efficiently. They are characterized by explicit rules, hierarchical authority, and division of labor.

Max Weber identified bureaucracy as the ideal type of formal organization. Bureaucracies operate through formalized rules, impersonal relationships, and standardized procedures.

Bureaucratic Principle	Description
Hierarchy of Authority	Clear chain of command where each level controls the one below.
Division of Labor	Tasks are specialized to promote efficiency.
Rules and Regulations	Formal guidelines govern all operations.
Impersonality	Decisions are made objectively, not personally.
Merit-based Employment	Positions awarded based on qualifications and performance.

While bureaucracy promotes order and consistency, it can also lead to alienation, ritualism, and inefficiency when rules outweigh human needs.

Module 10: Deviance and Social Control

Lesson 23: Deviance

Deviance refers to any behavior, belief, or condition that violates cultural norms or expectations. It is not inherently negative; rather, it is defined by societal reactions and context.

Sociologists study deviance to understand why rule-breaking occurs and how societies maintain conformity.

Theoretical Perspective	Explanation of Deviance
Functionalist	Deviance clarifies moral boundaries, promotes social cohesion, and can drive social change.
Conflict	Deviance reflects inequality—laws and norms often protect the interests of the powerful.
Symbolic Interactionist	Deviance arises from labeling and interactions; people become deviant when labeled as such.

Labeling theory emphasizes that deviance is socially constructed—individuals internalize labels assigned by others. Primary deviance refers to initial rule-breaking, while secondary deviance occurs when one accepts the deviant identity.

Lesson 24: Social Control

Social control encompasses the mechanisms societies use to encourage conformity and discourage deviance. These mechanisms can be informal (social pressure, ridicule, praise) or formal (laws, sanctions, imprisonment).

Type of Control	Description	Examples
Informal Social Control	Enforced through socialization and peer pressure.	Gossip, shame, ridicule.
Formal Social Control	Institutional enforcement of rules and laws.	Police, courts, regulations.

Social control promotes order but can also perpetuate inequality when applied unevenly. For example, marginalized groups may experience harsher sanctions for similar behaviors.

Module 11: Crime

Lesson 25: Types of Crime

Crime is a specific form of deviance involving violation of formal laws. Societies categorize crimes by severity and intent.

Category	Definition	Examples
Violent Crimes	Acts involving force or threat against others.	Murder, assault, robbery.
Property Crimes	Crimes involving theft or destruction of property.	Burglary, arson, vandalism.
White-Collar Crimes	Nonviolent crimes committed by individuals in high-status positions.	Fraud, embezzlement, insider trading.
Corporate Crimes	Illegal acts committed by corporations for profit.	False advertising, environmental violations.
Victimless Crimes	Activities criminalized though they primarily harm the participant.	Gambling, drug use, prostitution.
Organized Crime	Coordinated criminal enterprises operating for profit.	Human trafficking, drug cartels.
Cybercrime	Offenses involving computers and digital networks.	Identity theft, hacking.

Criminal behavior is influenced by complex social factors, including inequality, opportunity, and subcultural values.

Lesson 26: The Criminal Justice System

The criminal justice system is the formal mechanism of social control that defines, enforces, and sanctions criminal behavior. It includes three major components: law enforcement, the judiciary, and corrections.

Component	Primary Function	Examples
Law Enforcement	Prevents and investigates crimes; apprehends offenders.	Police departments, federal agencies.
Judiciary	Interprets laws and determines guilt or innocence.	Courts, judges, attorneys.
Corrections	Administers penalties and rehabilitation.	Prisons, probation, parole.

Modern criminal justice emphasizes not only punishment but also rehabilitation and restorative justice, which seeks to repair harm through reconciliation between offenders and victims. However, disparities based on race, class, and gender remain persistent issues in enforcement and sentencing.