PSY FPX 7310 Assessment 4 Traumatic Brain Injuries

PSY FPX 7310 Assessment 4 Traumatic Brain Injuries

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Capella University

PSY FPX 7310 Biological Basis of Behavior

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Date

Traumatic Brain Injuries: The Causes and Effects of CTE

Abstract

Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) are increasingly concerning in today’s society, often resulting from active sports participation. The most commonly diagnosed TBI is a mild concussion, which arises from moderate head-to-head contact and may cause headaches, dizziness, or mild nausea. While some TBIs are minor and of little concern, repeated head contact, as observed in professional American football, boxing, or hockey, can lead to chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a neurodegenerative disease. This abstract examines responsibility for concussions, explores the effects and potential coping mechanisms for CTE, and discusses the ethical challenges faced by medical and psychological professionals. Future research in safety and neurological care is essential to address the growing complexities of brain injuries.

Introduction

Athletes today risk their bodies in every game and every season. Depending on the sport, they may also be risking their lives due to the physical nature of their activities. In sports like football and boxing, constant blows to the head can cause traumatic brain injuries, specifically chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). CTE is defined as brain trauma caused by repetitive, episodic, or a single triggering event, leading to progressive neurological deterioration (Tharmaratnam et al., 2018). Traumatic brain injuries often result in significant neurological changes, affecting a person’s emotional, behavioral, and, to a lesser degree, physical personality. This research aims to explore the triggers of CTE, its impact on emotional well-being, and the societal challenges in supporting those suffering from CTE.

Emotion and Behavior: Do They Drive Each Other?

Emotions, whether positive or negative, are inherent in every human, and similarly, behaviors can be constructive or harmful. But how are emotions and behaviors connected or interdependent? Emotions are subjective feelings triggered by events or situations (Hein, Roder & Finerle, 2018). These reactions are categorized into six main areas: joy, fear, anger, surprise, disgust, and joy. The amygdala, located in the brain’s limbic system, is where emotions occur and influence bodily responses. Psychologists have explored the connection between emotion and behavior, linking behavioral reactions to hormonal pathways between the amygdala and hypothalamus. Hormones released by the pituitary gland drive states such as hunger, anger, and circadian cycles. When hormones are stimulated too rapidly or intensely, behaviors can escalate, such as aggression, or, if levels decrease, result in sadness and depression (Hein, Roder & Fingerle, 2018). While research often associates physiological behaviors with negativity, there is also evidence of a connection between prosocial behaviors and positive societal effects, such as empathy (Carlson, 2014).

A Deeper Look into Traumatic Brain Injuries and CTE

A traumatic brain injury (TBI) is broadly defined as an alteration in brain function or other evidence of brain pathology caused by an external force, typically resulting from athletic activities, battlefield incidents, or uncontrollable accidents (Manley & Maas, 2013). The prevalence of TBIs has been rising, with nearly 1.7 million people seeking medical attention annually for various degrees of TBI. Approximately 2% of Americans live daily with symptoms and consequences of some form of TBI, ranging from severe brain damage to mild concussion symptoms (Manley & Maas, 2013). The causes of TBI vary, ranging from mild cases that do not disrupt daily routines to severe cases requiring constant medical care, often leading to death.

Concussions are often the first type of TBI that comes to mind, occurring when the brain undergoes a whiplash-like motion, shaking irregularly. As concussions result from direct head impacts, society increasingly recognizes the need to address them in athletics (Yaffe, 2012). Athletes, both young and mature, are more likely to experience concussions during their playing careers. The Center for Disease Control estimates that 1.6 to 3.8 million concussions occur annually due to athletic activities (Brain Injury Research Institute, 2020).

However, athletes who voluntarily engage in sports do not seek injury, raising the question of who is responsible for the long-term effects of TBIs. This is a contentious issue. On one hand, athletes voluntarily participate in sports, assuming some risk. On the other hand, psychologists argue that both youth and professional sports should be responsible for advertising risks and promoting safe play. Professional sports organizations are legally and medically required to provide care for their athletes, including safety knowledge and available treatment options (Pachman & Lamba, 2017).

One specific TBI is chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a neurodegenerative disease most commonly affecting athletes in professional American football and boxing. CTE is caused by repetitive head trauma. Although one might assume a link between concussions and CTE, studies have shown no scientifically proven connection (Yaffe, 2012). CTE begins to develop when a protein called Tau clumps and slowly spreads through the brain, killing brain cells. Symptoms such as memory loss, cognitive decline, and even hallucinations typically emerge years after the repetitive head trauma occurs, often after an athlete’s career ends (Boren, 2018). Unfortunately, CTE can only be diagnosed posthumously. Specialized doctors examine brain tissue to detect Tau clumps. While dementia and CTE symptoms can overlap, CTE patients often exhibit more violent and aggressive behaviors, which frequently result in suicide (Concussion Legacy Foundation, 2019).

The Effect of CTE on Emotions and Behaviors

Repetitive head trauma can cause shifting and whiplash-like movements that damage the brain. While diagnosing CTE before death is challenging, research suggests that repetitive trauma accelerates the release of Tau, which clumps and forms neurofibrillary tangles (Hindawi). This process is believed to contribute to behavioral and emotional changes in CTE patients. Posthumous diagnoses often reveal that CTE patients exhibited significant behavioral and emotional changes due to Tau buildup. Researchers report that repetitive head trauma can release large amounts of enzymes, causing neurons to react abnormally. Dark behaviors emerge, including depression-like isolation, extreme irritability, and suicidal tendencies (Yuan & Wang, 2017). CTE is also linked to violent behaviors, such as explosivity, extreme anger, and impulsivity, which typically manifest years after the initial trauma (Omalu et al., 2010). While head trauma can disrupt brain function, repetitive trauma significantly increases the risk of severe and potentially lethal consequences.

The Ethical Challenges with CTE and Traumatic Brain Injuries

Ethics and traumatic brain injuries are sensitive topics. Athletes, from aspiring youth to professionals, take pride in their ability to “take the punch” and continue playing. Society is becoming increasingly aware of the long-term effects of concussions, and professional athletes are investing more time and resources into understanding concussions and CTE. Medical professionals must adopt a humanistic approach, ethically prioritizing holistic healing, while athletes often seek quick recovery. Honesty from athletes, coaches, and parents is crucial for proper treatment, especially regarding concussions. Coaches must communicate the importance of health and safety to parents and athletes, emphasizing long-term well-being. Harm avoidance is an emerging ethical challenge in athletics. Professional organizations are held to higher standards to ensure athletes are well-informed and protected. Lastly, social benefit is an ethical consideration for all involved. Psychologists and medical professionals must emphasize the importance of seeking timely medical attention and continuing treatment for the benefit of the individual and society over time (Boren, 2018).

Evidence-Based Interventions and Coping Mechanisms for CTE

Patients with TBI have several options to regain cognitive functions lost due to injury. Neuropsychologists assess physical, emotional, functional, and speech abilities, while occupational therapists evaluate fine and gross motor skills. One evidence-based intervention involves TBI patients participating in Brain Injury Coping Skills (BICS) groups. These groups, led by psychoeducators and psychotherapists, teach stress management and problem-solving skills to help patients regain normal functioning. Group settings foster a sense of community, encouraging patients to work together for individual and collective improvement. Evidence shows that patients who received stress management and problem-solving interventions in BICS groups were better equipped to function in society after group sessions, compared to control groups that met without educators (Backhaus et al., 2010).

Conclusion

Traumatic brain injuries are a growing concern among athletes, from youth sports to professional levels. Head injuries can range from mild concussions caused by routine sports contact to severe and life-threatening neurological conditions such as CTE. Advances in neuroscience and technology enable psychologists and medical experts to develop safety plans and return-to-play strategies to prevent long-term injuries that could lead to life-threatening conditions. As the saying goes, “It is better to be safe than sorry,” and this approach is increasingly adopted by medical professionals and sports organizations to protect athletes.

References

Backhaus, S., Ibarra, S., Klyce, D., Trexler, L., & Malec, J. (2010). Brain injury coping skills group: A preventative intervention for patients with brain injury and their caregivers. Archives of Physical Medicine Rehabilitation, 91, 840.

Boren, C. (2018). A new study shows that hits to the head, not concussions, cause CTE. Washington: WP Company LLC d/b/a The Washington Post. Retrieved from http://library.capella.edu/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.proquest.com%2Fdocview%2F1988839360%3Faccountid%3D27965

Carlson, N. R. (2014). Physiology of behavior (11th ed.). Pearson.

Concussion Legacy Foundation. (2019). What is CTE? https://concussionfoundation.org/CTE-resources/what-is-CTE

Hein, T., Roder,

H., & Fingerle, M. (2018). Emotions and behavior: A humanistic approach to psychiatric and neurological disorders. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00991

Hindawi. (n.d.). The impact of repetitive head injuries on neurodegenerative diseases. https://www.hindawi.com/journals/

PSY FPX 7310 Assessment 4 Traumatic Brain Injuries

Manley, G. T., & Maas, A. I. R. (2013). Traumatic brain injury: An international knowledge-based approach. Journal of Neurotrauma, 30(4), 479-490.

Omalu, B., Bailes, J., Hamilton, R. L., Kamboh, M. I., Hammers, J., & Webster, G. (2010). Emerging histomorphologic phenotypes of chronic traumatic encephalopathy in American athletes. Neurosurgery, 69(1), 173-183. https://doi.org/10.1227/01.NEU.0000360832.83251.42

Pachman, E., & Lamba, S. (2017). Legal and ethical considerations in concussion care: The evolving roles of health care professionals. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 16(1), 14-19. https://doi.org/10.1249/JSR.0000000000000333

Tharmaratnam, T., Iskandar, A., Alluri, A., Weber, J., Puccio, A. M., & Okonkwo, D. O. (2018). The epidemiology of chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Journal of Neurosurgery, 130(3), 879-886. https://doi.org/10.3171/2017.10.JNS17914

Yaffe, K. (2012). Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: Clinical and research implications of a newly recognized condition. JAMA, 308(24), 2577-2578. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2012.44798

Yuan, W., & Wang, Q. (2017). The role of tau protein in neurodegenerative diseases. Neuroscience Bulletin, 33(4), 575-583. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12264-017-0110-7