PSY FPX 7310 Assessment 2 The Drive States

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Capella University

PSY FPX 7310 Biological Basis of Behavior

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Introduction to Drive

In the early 1930s, psychologist Clark Hull introduced “drive theory,” which posits that organisms are inherently equipped with psychological needs, and a negative state of tension arises when these needs are unmet. Once a need is fulfilled, the drive diminishes, and the organism returns to a state of homeostasis and relaxation. Hull described the state of arousal, driven by motivation, as “drive,” which is not pleasant but rather uncomfortable, compelling the organism to fulfill a biological need. Therefore, the drive becomes something the organism strives to eliminate to reduce this state of tension (Dewey, 2018). According to Dewey (2018), Hull, in the 1930s, aimed to develop a comprehensive theory that he believed would unify all aspects of psychology. The theory is grounded in the concept of homeostasis, defined as the active regulation of critical biological variables (Dewey, 2018). Hull’s theory suggests that all organisms experience a sense of motivation when they need something that is not currently available, which in turn induces a drive. Biological motives are innate, including hunger, thirst, the pursuit of pleasure, and the avoidance of pain (Dewey, 2018).

The Drive State of Hunger

Weltens et al. (2014) state that hunger, as a drive state, revolves around the concept that the body constantly requires nutrients to maintain homeostasis. Normal eating behaviors are regulated by a complex interaction between two parallel signaling systems that control energy balance and emotional-motivational processes (Weltens et al., 2014). The homeostatic system, which regulates energy balance, consists of peripheral endocrine and metabolic signals that act on hypothalamic and brainstem nuclei to modulate energy intake and expenditure based on the body’s energy resources and needs (Weltens et al., 2014).

Hunger and Behavior

Researchers have demonstrated correlations between food and emotions, showing that humans often use food to fill emotional voids caused by various life complications. This can lead to excessive eating during stressful situations (Weltens et al., 2014). According to Weltens et al. (2014), sensory signals from different receptor cells in the periphery, including taste and olfactory receptors, activate primary sensory cortices, such as the anterior insula/adjoining frontal operculum for taste and the pyriform cortex for smell. Stimulus identity and intensity are encoded into stable representations, independent of hunger or motivational state. This information is then conveyed to subcortical areas, such as the amygdala and hippocampus, as well as higher-order cortical areas, including the insula and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), for further multimodal sensory integration. This integration, combined with stored information regarding past experiences with different foods, guides current and future food intake behavior (Weltens et al., 2014).

Social and Cultural Factors

Self-esteem has been linked to eating disorders. Baumeister et al. (2003) discuss the appeal of high self-esteem and its impact on daily life. A significant challenge is coping with the reality that people are also motivated to perceive themselves accurately and acknowledge their undesirable characteristics (Baumeister et al., 2003). Rhea et al. (2013) conducted research to determine the relationship between ethnic identity, self-esteem, and eating disorders. They hypothesized that ethnic identity is associated with self-esteem and would positively correlate with eating disorders among urban white, Mexican, and Black American adolescent females. The study involved 1,042 urban females from six ethnically diverse high schools. The researchers used the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI), a 64-item, self-report, eight-subscale measure designed to assess psychological and behavioral traits common in anorexia and bulimia nervosa. For this study, the three behavioral subscales of the EDI indicative of eating disorder traits were used: Drive for Thinness (DT), Bulimia (BUL), and Body Dissatisfaction (BD) (Rhea et al., 2013).

The study found significant differences between ethnicity, ethnic identity, and self-esteem. For the same low self-esteem score, white and Mexican American females were more likely than Black females to report higher at-risk eating disorder behaviors (Rhea et al., 2013). Previous research has shown that Black women tend to accept larger body sizes and perceive a larger body size as ideal compared to white women. However, due to feelings of ineffectiveness and other emotional factors, they may be more prone to binge eating rather than dietary restraint (Crago & Shisslak, 2003).

Ethical Issues

Addressing complex ethical concerns in any human service can be achieved through the application of ethical codes throughout the counseling process. The challenges in working with eating disorders are similar to other areas of human service work, requiring confidentiality, informed consent, self-awareness, and wellness (Warren & McGee, 2004).

Warren and McGee (2004) provide an overview of eating disorders, followed by a general discussion of ethics, counseling awareness, and counselor wellness to help professionals better understand how to interact with individuals suffering from disorders such as obesity, anorexia, and bulimia. These ethical issues involve confidentiality, informed consent, counselor awareness, and counselor wellness. The American Counseling Association (ACA) Code of Ethics (2005) emphasizes that “counselors do not share confidential information without client consent or without sound legal or ethical justification” (ACA, 2005, B.1.c). For example, when dealing with a client with a hunger-driven disorder, the counselor should ensure the individual feels comfortable and reassured that all shared information is confidential.

PSY FPX 7310 Assessment 2 The Drive States

The ACA Code of Ethics (2005) also emphasizes informed consent, stating that “counselors explicitly explain to clients the nature of all services provided; they inform clients about issues such as the purposes, goals, techniques, procedures, limitations, potential risks, and benefits of services; the counselor’s qualifications, credentials, and relevant experience” (ACA, 2005, A.2.b., p. 4). It is crucial for the counselor to clarify any risks involved and ensure the client is willing to participate in the counseling process. When dealing with eating disorders such as obesity, the counselor should clarify that if any questions during the session are too vague to consent to, the client is free to skip them.

According to the ACA Code of Ethics (2005), “counselors are aware of their own values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors and avoid imposing values inconsistent with counseling goals” (ACA, 2005, A.4.b., pp. 4-5). It is important to recognize that coping skills that work for one individual may not work for another, and providers must be mindful of their biases to avoid impairing effective treatment.Lastly, the ACA Code of Ethics (2005) emphasizes counselor wellness, stating that “counselors are alert to the signs of impairment from their own physical, mental, or emotional problems and refrain from offering or providing professional services when such impairment is likely to harm a client or others” (ACA, 2005, C.2.g., p. 9). Johnston et al. (2005) reported that while counselors with a history of eating disorders may have therapeutic advantages, therapists with a current eating disorder may lack objectivity and be vulnerable (Johnston et al., 2005).

Opinion of Most Important Ethical Issue Related to Hunger Drive

In my opinion, the most important ethical code is maintaining confidentiality with the individual seeking help or advice. As a professional, it is essential to recognize that the person in need is feeling vulnerable and has chosen to confide in you. Building rapport by assuring them that their information will not be shared with anyone else is crucial for helping them feel comfortable and allowing you to assist them to the best of your ability.

Addressing the ethical issues related to hunger drive is often complicated. In this context, the most important ethical concern involves the traditional views of food security. Food is essential for human survival, and it also plays a role in various social issues. Our food choices are often connected with our beliefs and values, which may be judged by others. However, these judgments should be set aside when dealing with someone battling diseases that can affect their mental state.

Intervention

After considering various evidence-based interventions and coping mechanisms, I would recommend that a client begin learning how to love and accept themselves. While this may be easier said than done, it is important for individuals to recognize that their self-worth is not solely based on physical attributes. Encouraging patients to be vulnerable and open with significant people in their lives can help reduce the need to rely on food for comfort.

References

American Counseling Association. (2005). ACA code of ethics. Alexandria, VA: Author.

Bailey, Z. D., Krieger, N., Agénor, M., Graves, J., Linos, N., & Bassett, M. T. (2017). Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: Evidence and interventions. Lancet, 389(10077), 1453–1463.

Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(1), 1–44. doi: 10.1111/1529-1006.01431